ISLAMIC SCIENCE

Islamic culture is the most relevant to European Science

GREEK-----ARABIC-----LATIN-----HEBREW

The Arabic culture and language spread afar: to Portugal in the west and to the frontiers of China in the East and over many degrees of latitude.

The most characteristic Arabic Scientific developments were in:

ALCHEMY

• Medieval chemical art whose principles objectives where to find the panacea and to transmute base metals into gold.

RHAZES

• Makes the earliest known suggestions for furnishing a chemical laboratory.
  

MATH

• Arabic numerals - an Indian system of numerical notation during the 19th century. It was invented in India passed through Persian to the Arabs, and was introduced in the Europe in the 10th century.
• Persian Mohammed IBN Alkhwarismi is the Persian Mohammed where from. He developed the process of vectification.

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY

• Constant preoccupation in the Islamic world. It was developed in Spain.
• Cordova- located in Southern Spain.
• Toledo- located in Central Spain.
• Toledan- tables of proposition were drawn up in 1080

The Ptolemic was replaced by this concentric system.

THE URBAN REBOLUTION ( 3000 - 5000 )

• A very important cultural transition began
• Generated new needs and resources and accompanied by a signficant increase in a technological innovation.
• the beggining of the invention of the city

CATEGORIES IN THE URBAN REVOLUTION

1. Craftsmen and Scientist - led to the search for other metallic ores, to the development and encouragement of trade in order to secure specific metals.
- rise of the first civilization

SUMMERIAN ASTRONOMERS

• Plotted the motion of heavenly bodies.
• Based calculations about calendar
• Relationship between science and technology have emerged.

2. Copper and Bronze

Goldsmiths - the technique of heating the metal incredible over a strong fire and casting it into simple clay or stone.

Bronze - is the important material of early civilization.

3. Sea Transportation - progress from sailing ship to vessels
Irrigation - developed of systemic irrigation.

STONE AGE TEECHNOLOGY

EARLIEST COMMUNITIES

• Lived almost entirely in the small nomadic communities.
• surviving on his skills in hunting and fishing.
• developed in tropical latitudes, especially in Africa.
• moved out hence into the subtropical regions and eventually into the landmass of Eurasia.

NEOLITIC REVOLUTION

• Increased in population
  
• Bigger communities
• Begginings of town life
• sometimes called as Neolithic Revolution

Primitive man used: wood, bone, fur, leaves, grasses

Stone

• material that gives its name and technology unity.
• became tools only when they were shaped delibarately for specific purposes and for this to be done efficiently.

Flint

• Became a very popular stone for this purpose, although fine sandstones and certain volcanic rocks were also widely used.

TOOLS AND WEAPONS

• stone headed spear
• the harpoon
• bow and arrow

OTHER DEVICES INVENTED

• Potter's Wheel, driven by kilks from the operator
• Wheels, gave continuous rotary movement in one direction
• Drill and the Lathe, derived from the bow and had the effect of spinning the drill piece.

FOOD PRODUCTION

• Paleolithic, gathering fishing and hunting
• Neolithic, agriculture, animal husbandry

BUILDING TECHNIQUES

• Impressive structure were created
• primarily tombs
• burial mounds and religious edifices
• sun-dried bricks for domestic housing

MANUFACTURING

• Grinding corn ( Quern ) - transport and communication
• Baking Clay ( Pottery)
• Spinning and weaving textiles
• Dyeing, fermenting and distilling
• gold, silver, copper, tin
• domestication of animals
• dugout canoe and brick-bark canoe

SCIENCE IN GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION

A. Greek Civilization

• emerged around 1100 B.C. Early Greeks have fully developed basic elements of mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography and medicine.

B. Person who give contribution on the development of science

• Thales - matter was composed of /or convertible into water.
• Hippocrates - father of medicine.
• Aristotle - classification of plants and animals.
• Archimedes - principle of lever and pulley
• Ptolemy - geocentric theory

C. Roman Civilization

• Time of Julius Caesar (102-44 B.C. ) - it is said that Romans are poor in science. But contributed a lot in the field of infrastructure.

D. Romans that give contributions in the field of science.

• Pliny the elder - only roman scientist that is celebrated.
• Galen - Wrote 150 of books on medicine.
• Cleopatra - Roman Queen who used cosmetics.
  

ASTRONOMY

Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Prehistoric cultures left behind astronomical artifacts such as the Egyptian monuments and Stonehenge, and early civilizations such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, and Indians performed methodical observations of the night sky. However, the invention of the telescope was required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern science. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.

During the 20th century, astronomy split into two major categories:

physics technology
A B

A. OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY

• Focused in acquiring data from observation which analized by the aids of basic principles of physics.

B. THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY

• Oriented towards the development computer or analytical models to described astronomical object and phenomena.

Some Contributions of Early Civilization

1. Babylonians

• Beggining of mathematical and scientific astronomy. They discovered the lunar eclipse recorded in repeating cycle known as a "caros".

2. Greeks (3rd B.C.)

• Aritarcus- calculated the mass of the earth and measures the distance and the size of the moon and star. He is also the first to proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system.
• Hipparchus- invented the first and the earliest known astronomical device such as the astrolabe.
  

Astrolabe

-Antiktheria mechanism (150 - 80 B.C.)- was an early analog computer designed to calculate of sun, moon, etc.

3. Persian

• Azophi- discovered the andromeda galaxy and described in his "book of fixed stars".

4. Egyptians

• ALI IBN RIDWAN- first observed the SN (supernova 1006). The brightest apparent magnitude stellar event recorded in the history.
  

AXIOM AND THEOREM

AXIOM or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject to necessary decision. Therefore, its truth is taken for granted, and serves as a starting point for deducing and inferring other (theory dependent) truths.WHILE a THEOREM is a statement which has been proven on the basis of previously established statements, such as other theorems, and previously accepted statements, such as axioms.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The early Greeks developed the LOGICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD whereby conclusion (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge).

Euclid established common notions very basic self-evident assertions:
Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.

If equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal.

If equals be subracted from equal, the remainers are equal.

Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.

AXIOMATIC SYSTEM- is any set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in conjunction to logically derive theorems.

CHARACTERISTIC OF AXIOMATIC SYSTEM
1. Independent
2. Complete
3. Consistent

THEOREM
Many theorems are of the form of an indicative conditional.

If A, then B, In this case A is called the hypothesis (antecedent) of the theorem and B the conclusion (consequent).

DEFINITION

A Definition may be a statement of the essential properties of a certain thing, or a statement of equivalence between one expression and another, usually more complex expression that gives meaning of the first.

A thing being is called (from Latin) a DEFINIENDUM the expression which defines it is called a DEFINIENS.

Lexical Definition

• a "dictionary Definition" reports the meaning of the word as it normally used.

Intensional Definition

• of the general term, on the other hand,is the sets of features which are shared by everything to which it applies.

Extensional Definition

• of a general term is just the collection of individual thing to which it correctly applied.

Contextual Definition

• some words cannot be clearly define on their own, but it is posible to offer schema for defining every sentence which they occur.

Stipulative Definition

• is the specification of meaning adopted or assumed specifically for the purposes for argument or discussion in a given context.

Ostensive Definition

• gives the meaning of a term by pointing out he thing denoted by, it, or pointing out of examples of the kind of thing meant by it.

Precising Definition

• is the definition that extends the dictionary definition of a term for specific purpose by including additional criteria that narrow down the set of thing meant by it.

Operational Definition

• of quantity is a specific process whereby it is measured.

CLASSIFICATION

• Distinction, identification and organization of two or more items, information and facts according to their similarities which are determined through comparison.

• Gives a closer view on the link between the object being compared.

Definition Of Classification According to Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz;

It is a differential of two or more objects and that these two objects are not "EVER EXACTLY ALIVE". In fact, no two things are "EVER EXACTLY ALIKE". That if ever there were two objects which were so alike, they would be some object. There is always an essential dissimilarity even in a pair of apparently identical objects.

PLATO'S THEORY OF UNIVERSALS
1. Universalia In RE (universal in the things)
- Everything is a combination of form and matter.
2. Universalia Ante Rem (universal before the things)
- The link between member of the class is that they are all imitations of an archetype which existed the world was made.
3. Universalia Past Rem ( universal after the things)
- nothing general exist particular things

FOUR DIFFERENT TYPES OF SIMILARITY

1. Genetic similarity- having similar origins
2. Structural similarity- having the same constituent parts.
3. Functional similarity- having similar behavior.
4. Apparent similarity- having similar external features.

LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE
Is an abstract system of word meaning and all aspect of culture. It includes speech, written character, numerals, symbol, gestures and expression of non-verbal communication.

Object
- the thing which the sign stands for.
Sign
- it represents what the object is.
Interpreter
- the person who does the sign in which the sign stands for.

TERMS
In percepts "sense meaning". According to C.I. Lewis: terms in simple way is study of its use and effect of the circumstances in which people employ it or react more or less consistently.

All terms have perceptual meaning. But there are some terms do not have meaning that fall into two classes:
* grammatical term
* abstract term

All language begin on ordinary language under the process of immediate necessity of communication but not in all cases like.
* customary usage as how it is spread
* grammatical term
* declision case spread fall down

ORDINARY LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
Is the argument that any language which is adequate stands as the transmitter of nuances or differences and shades of meaning on which everyday conversation must be fluid.

THOUGHT

THOUGHT
- Act of thinking
- Which one think
- Opinions and reflection

CONCEPTS
- Are really habits of expectation
- Serves as a representations of an object
- It is idea or mental image

PERCEPTS
- View
- Reflections
- Impression

TITCHENER
- Used to report what comes into his head when he was using certain idea.
- Image theory

HUME
- Used by introspecting to discovered what the self look like.
- Bundless of perception

RYLE
- Used to asked questions about the concept.

HERACLITUS
- He recognized in perception are more or less arbitrarily carved but of the continues stuff.

PERCEPTION

PERCEPTION
- Is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information.
- Means receiving, collecting actions of taking possession with the mind or senses.

"WHAT ONE PERCEIVES IS A RESULT OF INTERPLAYS BETWEEN PAST EXPERIENCES, INCLUDING ONE'S CULTURE AND THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PERCEIVED"

FOUR KEYWORDS
Perception - Experience - Knowledge - Science

EDMUND HUSSERL
- Bracketing : This means forgetting for the time being all that one has learned in order to take an unprejudiced look at what is represented.

KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE
- Is difined expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education.
- Acquisition involves complex cognitive processes.
- Confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use for specific purposes.

THE FOUR MATTER OF FACTS
That something exist.
That something can be known.
That there is something which matter.
That something including the foregoing statements.

FOUR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Ontology or theory of being
Epistemology or theory of knowledge
Axiology or the theory of value
Logic or the theory of influence.

OTHER SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
- Custom and tradition
- Sense perception
- Intuition

PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS

Philosophical Analysis is the general term for the process used by the philosophers in an analytic tradition that involve breaking down philosophical issues.

ANALYSIS
From the greek word "analusis" means to breakdown; is the process of breaking down topic or substance to gain a better understanding.

THREE MAIN WAYS OF FORMING ANALYSIS
1. EXPLICATION - which was so called by Carnap who worked largely in the construction of symbolic language.

2. REDEFINITION - it is associated with Moore by replacing term or statement to be analyze by other term and statement which have the same meaning with the same sort of language but which more carefully formulated and more clearly understand.

3. ILLUSTRATION - which takes the opposite point of view holding who practiced by Wittgenstein by just keeping close to multiplying use of one term to another.

TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES OF PHILOSOPHY

1.Theoretical Philosophy- direct itself to knowing things as they are without thinking of application. Its ultimate aim is knowledge of truth.

a. METAPHYSICS: It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world.

b. ONTOLOGY: Is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.

c. COSMOLOGY: Refers to the study of the Universe in its totality as it now is (or at least as it can be observed now), and by extension, humanity's place in it.

d. THEODICY: Comes from Greek theos ‘god’ + dike ‘justice’.

e. PSYCHOLOGY: Is the scientific study of human or other animal mental functions and behaviors.

f. EPISTEMOLOGY: Is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge.

It addresses the questions:

* What is knowledge?
* How is knowledge acquired?
* What do people know?
* How do we know what we know?


2.Practical Philosophy- directs its concern to things which are material or perceptible and useful. Its goal is not just finding the truth but acting on it.

a. SEMANTICS: Is the study of meaning, usually in language.

b. LOGIC: Is the study of reasoning.

c. ETHICS: Is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good vs. bad, noble vs. ignoble, right vs. wrong, and matters of justice, love, peace, and virtue.

d. AXIOLOGY: Is the philosophical study of value.

e. AESTHETICS: Is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.

FUNCTION OF PHILOSOPHY

1. To carefully examine and criticize the premisses and conclusion of all sciences such as biology, physics, sociology, anatomy and others. and to compare this assumptions and conclusion of different sciences when the result appears to be contradictory.

2. To synthesize findings.

3. To harmonize and bring this and other sciences together to complement and/or support one another.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

The Philosophy of Science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implication of science.

Science is a body of empirical,theoretical and practical knowledge about the natural world.

According to Aristotle:

Philosophy is a thinking which aim a maximum connected to the truth about all available experience.

According to Brittle:

Philosophy is a science of being in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by the aid of numerous reasons alone.


"The Ultimate Goal Of The Philosophy Is To Seek For The TRUTH"

VIEWS OF PHILOSOPHY WHICH IS SUPPLEMENTARY BY SMITH AND TILER
1. It is a personal attitude towards life and the universe.
2. A philosophy is a method of reflective thinking and reason inquiring.
3. Philosophy is attempt to gain a view of the whole.
4. Philosophy is a logical analysis of the language and clarification of the meaning of the words and concepts.
5. Philosophy is a group of problems as well as theories and the solutions of this problems.

NATURE
Science describe the object of the study part by part while Philosophy attemt yo do it as a whole or comprehensively.

SCOPE
Science tends to eliminate the personal factors and to ignore values and its drive for objectively while Philosophy interested in personality, values and or real of human experiences.

APPROACH
Science aim to absorb nature and control process while Philosophy it criticize, evaluate and integrate values dimensin of life.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. In addition to these central problems for science as a whole, many philosophers of science consider these problems as they apply to particular sciences (e.g. philosophy of biology or philosophy of physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to draw philosophical morals.

Although most practitioners are philosophers, several prominent scientists have contributed to the field and still do. Other prominent scientists have felt that the practical effect on their work is limited: “Philosophy of science is about as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds,” according to physicist Richard Feynman.

Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are usually considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science.