The last half of the nineteenth century was a period which experienced rapid progress in science and technology.
There were important breakthroughs in:
iron and steel technology,
electricity,
weapons,
physics and chemistry
sociology, psychology and biology
There were numerous applications such as:
ocean liners with steel hulls,
skyscrapers, suspension bridges,
electric trolley cars, the first subway, central power stations
In the study of physics, there was a much improved understanding of the nature of matter :
Dalton, an English schoolmaster, postulated a theory in which the atom was conceived as being a tiny billiard ball. Material of the same atom were elements. Material combining different elements were compounds. Dalton theorized that elements always combined in fixed ratios into compounds, as for example, in water, two atoms of hydrogen always combined with one atom of oxygen. Atoms were the smallest indestructible parts of matter.
Mendeleev began to develop the table of elements which helped in the discovery of new elements.
In the last decade of the century, the discovery of radium by Marie and Pierre Curie, and the electron by Becquerel as well as observation of radioactivity in the laboratory, challenged Dalton's theory.
Einstein produced the theory of the conversion of mass into energy, E=mC(2), which was confirmed by laboratory observations.
A new theory of the atom was devised by the English physicist Rutherford in 1913. He conceived of the atom as consisting of a hard nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
The theoretical foundations for a whole host of new inventions in electronics and nuclear power was laid. In the field of social sciences, the study of Sociology was conceived by Auguste Comte, who wrote of a heirarchy of knowledge:
Each level of knowledge was said to be more sophisticated than the preceding level.
In Psychology, Sigmund Freud looked for explanations for individual human behavior beyond the rational level. He understood people to be motivated by a superego (a conscience), an ego (the rational mind), and an id (subconscious motivation). In Biology, Charles Darwin developed his Theory of evolution. Traveling on a long voyage on the Beagle, he had the opportunity to observe great varieties of different species of life, some of which did not exist in England. He kept voluminous records which he later used to develop his theory.
During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics, math, manufacturing, and engineering. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the invention of printing which would democratize learning and allow a faster propagation of new ideas. But, at least in its initial period, some see the Renaissance as one of scientific backwardness. Historians like George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have criticized how the Renaissance affected science, arguing that progress was slowed for some amount of time. Humanists favored human-centered subjects like politics and history over study of natural philosophy or applied mathematics. Others have focused on the positive influence of the Renaissance, pointing to factors like the rediscovery of lost or obscure texts and the increased emphasis on the study of language and the correct reading of texts.
Marie Boas Hall coined the term Scientific Renaissance to designate the early phase of the Scientific Revolution. More recently, Peter Dear has argued for a two-phase model of early modern science: a Scientific Renaissance of the 15th and 16th centuries, focused on the restoration of the natural knowledge of the ancients; and a Scientific Revolution of the 17th century, when scientists shifted from recovery to innovation.
During and after the Renaissance of the 12th century, Europe experienced an intellectual revitalization, especially with regard to the investigation of the natural world. In the 14th century, however, a series of events that would come to be known as the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages was underway. When the Black Death came, it brought a sudden end to the previous period of massive scientific change. The plague killed 25–50% of the people in Europe, especially in the crowded conditions of the towns, where the heart of innovations lay. Recurrences of the plague and other disasters caused a continuing decline of population for a century.
The Renaissance
The 14th century saw the beginning of the cultural movement of the Renaissance. The rediscovery of ancient texts was accelerated after the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West, particularly Italy. Also, the invention of printing was to have great effect on European society: the facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. But this initial period is usually seen as one of scientific backwardness. There were no new developments in physics or astronomy, and the reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. Philosophy lost much of its rigour as the rules of logic and deduction were seen as secondary to intuition and emotion. At the same time, Humanism stressed that nature came to be viewed as an animate spiritual creation that was not governed by laws or mathematics. Science would only be revived later, with such figures as Copernicus, Francis Bacon, and Descartes.
Important developments
Alchemy Alchemy is the study of the transmutation of materials through obscure processes. It is sometimes described as an early form of chemistry. One of the main aims of alchemists was to find a method of transmuting lead to gold. A common belief of alchemists was that there is an essential substance from which all other substances formed, and that if you could reduce a substance to this original material, you could then construct it into another substance, like lead to gold. Medieval alchemists worked with two main elements, sulphur and mercury. Paracelsus was an alchemist and physician of the Renaissance. The Paracelsians added a third element, salt, to make a trinity of alchemical elements.
Astronomy
The astronomy of the late Middle Ages was based on the geocentric model described by Claudius Ptolemy in antiquity. Probably very few practicing astronomers or astrologers actually read Ptolemy's Almagest, which had been translated into Latin by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century. Instead they relied on introductions to the Ptolemaic system such as the De sphaera mundi of Johannes de Sacrobosco and the genre of textbooks known as Theorica planetarum. For the task of predicting planetary motions they turned to the Alfonsine Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on the Almagest models but incorporating some later modifications, mainly the trepidation model attributed to Thabit ibn Qurra. Contrary to popular belief, astronomers of the Middle Ages and Renaissance did not resort to "epicycles on epicycles" in order to correct the original Ptolemaic models—until one comes to Copernicus himself. Sometime around 1450, mathematician Georg Purbach (1423–1461) began a series of lectures on astronomy at the University of Vienna. Regiomontanus (1436–1476), who was then one of his students, collected his notes on the lecture and later published them as Theoricae novae planetarum in the 1470s. This "New Theorica" replaced the older theorica as the textbook of advanced astronomy. Purbach also began to prepare a summary and commentary on the Almagest. He died after completing only six books, however, and Regiomontanus continued the task, consulting a Greek manuscript brought from Constantinople by Cardinal Bessarion. When it was published in 1496, the Epitome of the Almagest made the highest levels of Ptolemaic astronomy widely accessible to many European astronomers for the first time. The last major event in Renaissance astronomy is the work of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543). He was among the first generation of astronomers to be trained with the Theoricae novae and the Epitome. Shortly before 1514 he began to explore a shocking new idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He spent the rest of his life attempting a mathematical proof of heliocentrism. When De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was finally published in 1543, Copernicus was on his deathbed. A comparison of his work with the Almagest shows that Copernicus was in many ways a Renaissance scientist rather than a revolutionary, because he followed Ptolemy's methods and even his order of presentation. In astronomy, the Renaissance of science can be said to have ended with the truly novel works of Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564–1642).
Latin translation of the main works of ancient philosophers and thinkers
Grosseteste (oxford franciscan School)
Aristotle dual path of reasoning (resolution and comparison)
Late Medieval Age
William of Occam ( principle of parsimony)
Jean Buridan ( most brilliant art master of MA ), theory of Imperatus
Thomas Bradwardine ( Instantaneous Velocity )
Nicole Oresme ( optics )
FURTHER EXPLANATION ABOUT MIDDLE AGES
Scientific activities were carried on throughout the Middle Ages in areas as diverse as astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. Whereas the ancient cultures of the world (i.e. those prior to the fall of Rome and the dawn of Islam) had developed many of the foundations of science, it was during the Middle Ages that the scientific method was born. The historical term "Middle Ages" developed within the context of European historiography, yet the "Greco-Arabic-Latin" science and natural philosophy of the Middle Ages has been described as "a triumph of three civilizations."
In the Middle Ages the Byzantine Empire, which had inherited the sophisticated science, mathematics, and medicine of classical antiquity and the Hellenistic era, soon fell behind the achievements of Western Europe and the Islamic world. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the decline in knowledge of Greek, Christian Western Europe was cut off from an important source of ancient learning. However, a range of Christian clerics and scholars from Isidore and Bede to Buridan and Oresme maintained the spirit of rational inquiry which would later lead to Europe's taking the lead in science during the Scientific Revolution.
Science, and particularly geometry and astronomy, was linked directly to the divine for most medieval scholars. Since God created the universe after geometric and harmonic principles, to seek these principles was therefore to seek and worship God.
As Roman imperial authority effectively ended in the West during the 5th century, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production dramatically. Most classical scientific treatises of classical antiquity written in Greek were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations. Nonetheless, Roman and early medieval scientific texts were read and studied, contributing to the understanding of nature as a coherent system functioning under divinely established laws that could be comprehended in the light of reason. This study continued through the Early Middle Ages, and with the Renaissance of the 12th century, interest in this study was revitalized through the translation of Greek and Arabic scientific texts. Scientific study further developed within the emerging medieval universities, where these texts were studied and elaborated, leading to new insights into the phenomena of the universe. These advances are virtually unknown to the lay public of today, partly because most theories advanced in medieval science are today obsolete, and partly because of the caricature of Middle Ages as a supposedly "Dark Age" which placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."
Early Middle Ages (AD 476-1000)
In the ancient world, Greek had been the primary language of science. Even under the Roman Empire, Latin texts drew extensively on Greek work, some pre-Roman, some contemporary; while advanced scientific research and teaching continued to be carried on in the Hellenistic side of the empire, in Greek. Late Roman attempts to translate Greek writings into Latin had limited success.
As the knowledge of Greek declined during the transition to the Middle Ages, the Latin West found itself cut off from its Greek philosophical and scientific roots. Most scientific inquiry came to be based on information gleaned from sources which were often incomplete and posed serious problems of interpretation. Latin-speakers who wanted to learn about science only had access to books by such Roman writers as Calcidius, Macrobius, Martianus Capella, Boethius, Cassiodorus, and later Latin encyclopedists. Much had to be gleaned from non-scientific sources: Roman surveying manuals were read for what geometry was included.
Deurbanization reduced the scope of education and by the sixth century teaching and learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the center of education being the study of the Bible. Education of the laity survived modestly in Italy, Spain, and the southern part of Gaul, where Roman influences were most long-lasting. In the seventh century, learning began to emerge in Ireland and the Celtic lands, where Latin was a foreign language and Latin texts were eagerly studied and taught.
In the Early Middle Ages, scientific study was concentrated at monasteries
The leading scholars of the early centuries were clergymen for whom the study of nature was but a small part of their interest. They lived in an atmosphere which provided little institutional support for the disinterested study of natural phenomena. The study of nature was pursued more for practical reasons than as an abstract inquiry: the need to care for the sick led to the study of medicine and of ancient texts on drugs, [10] the need for monks to determine the proper time to pray led them to study the motion of the stars, the need to compute the date of Easter led them to study and teach rudimentary mathematics and the motions of the Sun and Moon. Modern readers may find it disconcerting that sometimes the same works discuss both the technical details of natural phenomena and their symbolic significance. [13]
Around 800, Charles the Great, assisted by the English monk Alcuin of York, undertook what has become known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a program of cultural revitalization and educational reform. The chief scientific aspect of Charlemagne's educational reform concerned the study and teaching of astronomy, both as a practical art that clerics required to compute the date of Easter and as a theoretical discipline. [14] From the year 787 on, decrees were issued recommending the restoration of old schools and the founding of new ones throughout the empire. Institutionally, these new schools were either under the responsibility of a monastery, a cathedral or a noble court.
The scientific work of the period after Charlemagne was not so much concerned with original investigation as it was with the active study and investigation of ancient Roman scientific texts. This investigation paved the way for the later effort of Western scholars to recover and translate ancient Greek texts in philosophy and the sciences.
Beginning around the year 1050, European scholars built upon their existing knowledge by seeking out ancient learning in Greek and Arabic texts which they translated into Latin. They encountered a wide range of classical Greek texts, some of which had earlier been translated into Arabic, accompanied by commentaries and independent works by Islamic thinkers.
Gerard of Cremona is a good example: an Italian who came to Spain to copy a single text, he stayed on to translate some seventy works. [16] His biography describes how he came to Toledo: "He was trained from childhood at centers of philosophical study and had come to a knowledge of all that was known to the Latins; but for love of the Almagest, which he could not find at all among the Latins, he went to Toledo; there, seeing the abundance of books in Arabic on every subject and regretting the poverty of the Latins in these things, he learned the Arabic language, in order to be able to translate."
This period also saw the birth of medieval universities, which benefited materially from the translated texts and provided a new infrastructure for scientific communities. Some of these new universities were registered as an institution of international excellence by the Holy Roman Empire, receiving the title of Studium Generale. Most of the early Studia Generali were found in Italy, France, England, and Spain, and these were considered the most prestigious places of learning in Europe. This list quickly grew as new universities were founded throughout Europe. As early as the 13th century, scholars from a Studium Generale were encouraged to give lecture courses at other institutes across Europe and to share documents, and this led to the current academic culture seen in modern European universities.
Scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. The most famous was Thomas Aquinas (later declared a "Doctor of the Church"), who led the move away from the Platonic and Augustinian and towards Aristotelianism (although natural philosophy was not his main concern). Meanwhile, precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature and in the empirical approach admired by Roger Bacon.
Grosseteste was the founder of the famous Oxford franciscan school. He built his work on Aristotle's vision of the dual path of scientific reasoning. Concluding from particular observations into a universal law, and then back again: from universal laws to prediction of particulars. Grosseteste called this "resolution and composition". Further, Grosseteste said that both paths should be verified through experimentation in order to verify the principals. These ideas established a tradition that carried forward to Padua and Galileo Galilei in the 17th century.
Under the tuition of Grosseteste and inspired by the writings of Arab alchemists who had preserved and built upon Aristotle's portrait of induction, Bacon described a repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the need for independent verification. He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results - a cornerstone of the scientific method, and a continuation of the work of researchers like Al Battani.
Bacon and Grosseteste conducted investigations into optics, although much of it was similar to what was being done at the time by Arab scholars. Bacon did make a major contribution to the development of science in medieval Europe by writing to the Pope to encourage the study of natural science in university courses and compiling several volumes recording the state of scientific knowledge in many fields at the time. He described the possible construction of a telescope, but there is no strong evidence of his having made one.
Late Middle Ages (AD 1300-1500)
The first half of the 14th century saw the scientific work of great thinkers. The logic studies by William of Occam led him to postulate a specific formulation of the principle of parsimony, known today as Occam's Razor. This principle is one of the main heuristics used by modern science to select between two or more underdetermined theories.
As Western scholars became more aware (and more accepting) of controversial scientific treatises of the Byzantine and Islamic Empires these readings sparked new insights and speculation. The works of the early Byzantine scholar John Philoponus inspired Western scholars such as Jean Buridan to question the received wisdom of Aristotle's mechanics. Buridan developed the theory of impetus which was a step towards the modern concept of inertia. Buridan anticipated Isaac Newton when he wrote:
Galileo's demonstration of the law of the space traversed in case of uniformly varied motion. It's the same demonstration that Oresme had made centuries earlier.
...after leaving the arm of the thrower, the projectile would be moved by an impetus given to it by the thrower and would continue to be moved as long as the impetus remained stronger than the resistance, and would be of infinite duration were it not diminished and corrupted by a contrary force resisting it or by something inclining it to a contrary motion
Thomas Bradwardine and his partners, the Oxford Calculators of Merton College, Oxford, distinguished kinematics from dynamics, emphasizing kinematics, and investigating instantaneous velocity. They formulated the mean speed theorem: a body moving with constant velocity travels distance and time equal to an accelerated body whose velocity is half the final speed of the accelerated body. They also demonstrated this theorem—essence of "The Law of Falling Bodies" -- long before Galileo is credited with this.
In his turn, Nicole Oresme showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of the earth were not valid and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heavens. Despite this argument in favor of the Earth's motion Oresme, fell back on the commonly held opinion that "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth."
The historian of science Ronald Numbers notes that the modern scientific assumption of methodological naturalism can be also traced back to the work of these medieval thinkers:
By the late Middle Ages the search for natural causes had come to typify the work of Christian natural philosophers. Although characteristically leaving the door open for the possibility of direct divine intervention, they frequently expressed contempt for soft-minded contemporaries who invoked miracles rather than searching for natural explanations. The University of Paris cleric Jean Buridan (a. 1295-ca. 1358), described as "perhaps the most brilliant arts master of the Middle Ages," contrasted the philosopher’s search for "appropriate natural causes" with the common folk’s erroneous habit of attributing unusual astronomical phenomena to the supernatural. In the fourteenth century the natural philosopher Nicole Oresme (ca. 1320-82), who went on to become a Roman Catholic bishop, admonished that, in discussing various marvels of nature, "there is no reason to take recourse to the heavens, the last refuge of the weak, or demons, or to our glorious God as if He would produce these effects directly, more so than those effects whose causes we believe are well known to us."
The Renaissance is a transitional period,in the work of the Renaissance all the great nations of Europe shared.The reason why they discovered lots of invention.. These is the time when in the foreground there came out the humanist striving for knowledge, the interest towards the surroundings and most of all a time of the awakened human personality, of the new versatile man. A time when many new sciences were born – ethnography, history, geography, when the freedom of thinking, of personal choice occurred, when the zeal for beauty, self-knowledge and ambition appeared. Meaning to say the people during the Renaissance period are very much curious and more interested to explore their knowledge in order to build a much better invention than before..
The Academia Del Cimiento in Florence ( 1657-1667 )
The Royal society in London (1662 )
The Academic Des Science in Paris ( 1662 )
Books and Journal
Journal Des Savants of Paris ( 1665 )
Acta Ervditorium of Leipzig (1682 )
Great Treatises
Principia mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton ( 1687 )
Traite De La Lumiereo of Christian huygens ( 1690 )
Remarkable Scientist
Johann Gutenberg ( 1450 ) - the invention of printing press.
German Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1402-64 ) - the latin exponent of the value of experiment.
Nicholas Copernicus ( 1403 ) - developed the heliocentric theory using scientific method.
Leonardo Da Vinci ( 1452-1514 ) -considered as the great artist of his time.
Andres Versalius ( 1514-1564 ) - founder of modern human technology.
THE NEW STATUS OF GREEK SCIENCE
Medieval thought on the material world was essentially based on Greeks, specially Plato and Aristotle.
Simon Stevinous - introduced the decimal fraction.
Galileo Galilei - made the telescope ( 1564- 1642 )
Johannes Kepler - theorized about the movement of the planet ( 1591-1630 )
Rene Descartes - inventor of the graph who believed in the God Existence.
Paracelsus - alchemist and physician of the renaissance.
Francis Bacon - improved scientific method.
Sir Isaac Newton - discovered the gravity.
EUROPEAN SCIENCE
Owes its past success and its special characteristic, its sharing, in the metaphysics and method. The basic features european society were aggressive individualism tempered by principle of cooperation for a common good.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
An industrial revolution began that transform Europe from Agrarian to an Urban society towards the end of the 18th century.
There has been more or less continuous contact between Europe and China since classical Greek times in spite of the distances between them and their totally different language.
Usually the connection was indirect and restricted to trade in luxury goods.
But even in the classical times there were curious synchronism in philosophical movements in Europe and China
Silk road- an ancient trade routine linking China with Rome.
Important Persons
Marco Polo- whose account of his travels and experiences offered European a firsthand view of Asian lands and Stimulated interests in Asian trade.
Zu Chongzhi- mathematician who calculated "pi" to the 7th digit.
Liu Ju-hsieh- mathematician who discovered "Pascal's Triangle"
Tao Ch'ien- famous poet and philosopher who influenced the ideaof "elixir of life".
Great Inventions
magnetic compass
printing press
gun powder
paper making
Astronomy - first planetarium which was made by an emperor.
Stellar explosion that took place in the "Crab Nebula" in 1054.
Mathematics - Asian abacus, "pi" was calculated to the seventh digit, decimal system, Pascal's Triangle
Military - Crossbows, poison gases, Bamboo-made cannons, Rockets
Medicine - "Elixir of life" potion, acupuncture, autopsy
The Indian Civilization is about the oldest still alive, and it achieved the high level of technology at an early stage.
The history of science and technology in India begins with the prehistoric human activity in Mehrgarh or Pakistanand continues through the Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Bronze Age Civilization to the early state and empires.
The Science And Technology in India has something to do with the following field:
Agriculture
Indian Astrology
Zinc Metallurgy
Mathematics
AGRICULTURE
The Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 B.C. The size and prosperity of Indus Civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers.
INDIAN ASTROLOGY
Indian Astronomical text named Vedanga Jyotisa dates back around 1200 B.C. It detailed several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.
In India there is a long established widespread beliefs in Astrology and it is commonly used for daily life.
Examples:With regards to marriage
With regards to career
With regards to election process
ZINC METALLURGY (refining metals)
Zinc mines of Zawar were active during 400 B. C.
Another important Indian contribution was in the Isolation, Distillation and use of Zinc. A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was India’s discovery of Zinc Distillation whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal.
Early Iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 B. C. Some scholars believed that by the early 13th century B.C. iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India.
Rust free steel was an Indian inventions and remained an Indian skill for centuries.
MATHEMATICS
The use of Negative numbers was known in early India and their role insituation like mathematical problems of debt was understood.
The Decimal number system originated in India. Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system which was compiled in India where it attained coherence and completion.
List of Indian Inventions and Discoveries
1.ATOMISM
The earliest reference to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6th century B.C.
According to Democritus:
The term “atomos” meaning uncuttable or the smallest indivisible particle of matter.
Dharmakirti and Dignaga
Indian philosophers and founder of VaishehikaSchool of atomism.
They considered atom to be:
1.point sized
2. dirationless
3. made of energy
2.CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT AND NUMBERS
Discovered by the named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the novel prize in Physics for his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.
3.UNIVERSE
The earliest known philosophical models of the universe are found in VEDAS, the earliest text on Indian philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium B.C. They described COSMOLOGY in which the universe goes through repeated cycle of creation, destruction and rebirth.
4.INDIGO
Indigo was used as a dye in India, which was also a major center for its production and processing.
5.FIREARMS
By the 16th century Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms: large guns in particular.
The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe.
In general, we can conclude that the science and technology in India has a greater part in terms of achieving high levels of technology in different kinds of field like in agriculture, in mathematics, in astrology and even in chemical elements that were still alive in our generation today.
Islamic culture is the most relevant to European Science
GREEK-----ARABIC-----LATIN-----HEBREW
The Arabic culture and language spread afar: to Portugal in the west and to the frontiers of China in the East and over many degrees of latitude.
The most characteristic Arabic Scientific developments were in:
ALCHEMY
Medieval chemical art whose principles objectives where to find the panacea and to transmute base metals into gold.
RHAZES
Makes the earliest known suggestions for furnishing a chemical laboratory.
MATH
Arabic numerals - an Indian system of numerical notation during the 19th century. It was invented in India passed through Persian to the Arabs, and was introduced in the Europe in the 10th century.
Persian Mohammed IBN Alkhwarismi is the Persian Mohammed where from. He developed the process of vectification.
ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY
Constant preoccupation in the Islamic world. It was developed in Spain.
Cordova- located in Southern Spain.
Toledo- located in Central Spain.
Toledan- tables of proposition were drawn up in 1080
The Ptolemic was replaced by this concentric system.
Generated new needs and resources and accompanied by a signficant increase in a technological innovation.
the beggining of the invention of the city
CATEGORIES IN THE URBAN REVOLUTION
1. Craftsmen and Scientist - led to the search for other metallic ores, to the development and encouragement of trade in order to secure specific metals. - rise of the first civilization
SUMMERIAN ASTRONOMERS
Plotted the motion of heavenly bodies.
Based calculations about calendar
Relationship between science and technology have emerged.
2. Copper and Bronze
Goldsmiths - the technique of heating the metal incredible over a strong fire and casting it into simple clay or stone.
Bronze - is the important material of early civilization.
3. Sea Transportation - progress from sailing ship to vessels Irrigation - developed of systemic irrigation.
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Prehistoric cultures left behind astronomical artifacts such as the Egyptian monuments and Stonehenge, and early civilizations such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, and Indians performed methodical observations of the night sky. However, the invention of the telescope was required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern science. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.
During the 20th century, astronomy split into two major categories:
physics technology A B
A. OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY
Focused in acquiring data from observation which analized by the aids of basic principles of physics.
B. THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY
Oriented towards the development computer or analytical models to described astronomical object and phenomena.
Some Contributions of Early Civilization
Babylonians
Beggining of mathematical and scientific astronomy. They discovered the lunar eclipse recorded in repeating cycle known as a "caros".
2. Greeks (3rd B.C.)
Aritarcus- calculated the mass of the earth and measures the distance and the size of the moon and star. He is also the first to proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system.
Hipparchus- invented the first and the earliest known astronomical device such as the astrolabe.
Astrolabe
-Antiktheria mechanism (150 - 80 B.C.)- was an early analog computer designed to calculate of sun, moon, etc.
3. Persian
Azophi- discovered the andromeda galaxy and described in his "book of fixed stars".
4.Egyptians
ALI IBN RIDWAN- first observed the SN (supernova 1006). The brightest apparent magnitude stellar event recorded in the history.
