SCIENCE IN THE LATIN WEST DURING MEDIEVAL AGE

Early Medieval Age

• Migration or Barbarian Invasion
• Deurbanization
• Study of nature was pursued move for practical reason than an abstract inquiry
• Educational Reform ( Charles The Great
  

7 Liberal Arts

Tribium (literary education)
1. rhetoric
2. grammar
3. dialectic

Quadrium (scientific education)
4. arithmetic
5. geometry
6. music
7. astronomy

High Medieval Age

• Birth of medieval Universities
• Latin translation of the main works of ancient philosophers and thinkers
• Grosseteste (oxford franciscan School)
• Aristotle dual path of reasoning (resolution and comparison)
  

Late Medieval Age

• William of Occam ( principle of parsimony)
• Jean Buridan ( most brilliant art master of MA ), theory of Imperatus
• Thomas Bradwardine ( Instantaneous Velocity )
• Nicole Oresme ( optics )

FURTHER EXPLANATION ABOUT MIDDLE AGES

Scientific activities were carried on throughout the Middle Ages in areas as diverse as astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. Whereas the ancient cultures of the world (i.e. those prior to the fall of Rome and the dawn of Islam) had developed many of the foundations of science, it was during the Middle Ages that the scientific method was born. The historical term "Middle Ages" developed within the context of European historiography, yet the "Greco-Arabic-Latin" science and natural philosophy of the Middle Ages has been described as "a triumph of three civilizations."

In the Middle Ages the Byzantine Empire, which had inherited the sophisticated science, mathematics, and medicine of classical antiquity and the Hellenistic era, soon fell behind the achievements of Western Europe and the Islamic world. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the decline in knowledge of Greek, Christian Western Europe was cut off from an important source of ancient learning. However, a range of Christian clerics and scholars from Isidore and Bede to Buridan and Oresme maintained the spirit of rational inquiry which would later lead to Europe's taking the lead in science during the Scientific Revolution.

Science, and particularly geometry and astronomy, was linked directly to the divine for most medieval scholars. Since God created the universe after geometric and harmonic principles, to seek these principles was therefore to seek and worship God.

As Roman imperial authority effectively ended in the West during the 5th century, Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production dramatically. Most classical scientific treatises of classical antiquity written in Greek were unavailable, leaving only simplified summaries and compilations. Nonetheless, Roman and early medieval scientific texts were read and studied, contributing to the understanding of nature as a coherent system functioning under divinely established laws that could be comprehended in the light of reason. This study continued through the Early Middle Ages, and with the Renaissance of the 12th century, interest in this study was revitalized through the translation of Greek and Arabic scientific texts. Scientific study further developed within the emerging medieval universities, where these texts were studied and elaborated, leading to new insights into the phenomena of the universe. These advances are virtually unknown to the lay public of today, partly because most theories advanced in medieval science are today obsolete, and partly because of the caricature of Middle Ages as a supposedly "Dark Age" which placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."

Early Middle Ages (AD 476-1000)

In the ancient world, Greek had been the primary language of science. Even under the Roman Empire, Latin texts drew extensively on Greek work, some pre-Roman, some contemporary; while advanced scientific research and teaching continued to be carried on in the Hellenistic side of the empire, in Greek. Late Roman attempts to translate Greek writings into Latin had limited success.

As the knowledge of Greek declined during the transition to the Middle Ages, the Latin West found itself cut off from its Greek philosophical and scientific roots. Most scientific inquiry came to be based on information gleaned from sources which were often incomplete and posed serious problems of interpretation. Latin-speakers who wanted to learn about science only had access to books by such Roman writers as Calcidius, Macrobius, Martianus Capella, Boethius, Cassiodorus, and later Latin encyclopedists. Much had to be gleaned from non-scientific sources: Roman surveying manuals were read for what geometry was included.

Deurbanization reduced the scope of education and by the sixth century teaching and learning moved to monastic and cathedral schools, with the center of education being the study of the Bible. Education of the laity survived modestly in Italy, Spain, and the southern part of Gaul, where Roman influences were most long-lasting. In the seventh century, learning began to emerge in Ireland and the Celtic lands, where Latin was a foreign language and Latin texts were eagerly studied and taught.

In the Early Middle Ages, scientific study was concentrated at monasteries

The leading scholars of the early centuries were clergymen for whom the study of nature was but a small part of their interest. They lived in an atmosphere which provided little institutional support for the disinterested study of natural phenomena. The study of nature was pursued more for practical reasons than as an abstract inquiry: the need to care for the sick led to the study of medicine and of ancient texts on drugs, ^[10] the need for monks to determine the proper time to pray led them to study the motion of the stars, the need to compute the date of Easter led them to study and teach rudimentary mathematics and the motions of the Sun and Moon. Modern readers may find it disconcerting that sometimes the same works discuss both the technical details of natural phenomena and their symbolic significance. ^[13]

Around 800, Charles the Great, assisted by the English monk Alcuin of York, undertook what has become known as the Carolingian Renaissance, a program of cultural revitalization and educational reform. The chief scientific aspect of Charlemagne's educational reform concerned the study and teaching of astronomy, both as a practical art that clerics required to compute the date of Easter and as a theoretical discipline. ^[14] From the year 787 on, decrees were issued recommending the restoration of old schools and the founding of new ones throughout the empire. Institutionally, these new schools were either under the responsibility of a monastery, a cathedral or a noble court.

The scientific work of the period after Charlemagne was not so much concerned with original investigation as it was with the active study and investigation of ancient Roman scientific texts. This investigation paved the way for the later effort of Western scholars to recover and translate ancient Greek texts in philosophy and the sciences.

High Middle Ages (AD 1000-1300)

The translation of Greek and Arabic works allowed the full development of Christian philosophy and the method of scholasticism

See also: Renaissance of the 12th century, Latin translations of the 12th century, and Medieval technology

Beginning around the year 1050, European scholars built upon their existing knowledge by seeking out ancient learning in Greek and Arabic texts which they translated into Latin. They encountered a wide range of classical Greek texts, some of which had earlier been translated into Arabic, accompanied by commentaries and independent works by Islamic thinkers.

Gerard of Cremona is a good example: an Italian who came to Spain to copy a single text, he stayed on to translate some seventy works. ^[16] His biography describes how he came to Toledo: "He was trained from childhood at centers of philosophical study and had come to a knowledge of all that was known to the Latins; but for love of the Almagest, which he could not find at all among the Latins, he went to Toledo; there, seeing the abundance of books in Arabic on every subject and regretting the poverty of the Latins in these things, he learned the Arabic language, in order to be able to translate."

This period also saw the birth of medieval universities, which benefited materially from the translated texts and provided a new infrastructure for scientific communities. Some of these new universities were registered as an institution of international excellence by the Holy Roman Empire, receiving the title of Studium Generale. Most of the early Studia Generali were found in Italy, France, England, and Spain, and these were considered the most prestigious places of learning in Europe. This list quickly grew as new universities were founded throughout Europe. As early as the 13th century, scholars from a Studium Generale were encouraged to give lecture courses at other institutes across Europe and to share documents, and this led to the current academic culture seen in modern European universities.

The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle, alongside the works of medieval Islamic and Jewish philosophers (such as Avicenna, Averroes and Maimonides) allowed the full development of the new Christian philosophy and the method of scholasticism. By 1200 there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of Aristotle, Euclid, Ptolemy, Archimedes, and Galen, that is, of all the intellectually crucial ancient authors except Plato, and many of the crucial medieval Arabic and Jewish texts, such as the main works of Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, al-Kindi, Rhazes, Alhazen, Avicenna, Avempace, Averroes and Maimonides. During the thirteenth century, scholastics expanded the natural philosophy of these texts by commentaries (associated with teaching in the universities) and independent treatises. Notable among these were the works of Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, John of Sacrobosco, Albertus Magnus, and Duns Scotus.

Scholastics believed in empiricism and supporting Roman Catholic doctrines through secular study, reason, and logic. The most famous was Thomas Aquinas (later declared a "Doctor of the Church"), who led the move away from the Platonic and Augustinian and towards Aristotelianism (although natural philosophy was not his main concern). Meanwhile, precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature and in the empirical approach admired by Roger Bacon.

Grosseteste was the founder of the famous Oxford franciscan school. He built his work on Aristotle's vision of the dual path of scientific reasoning. Concluding from particular observations into a universal law, and then back again: from universal laws to prediction of particulars. Grosseteste called this "resolution and composition". Further, Grosseteste said that both paths should be verified through experimentation in order to verify the principals. These ideas established a tradition that carried forward to Padua and Galileo Galilei in the 17th century.

Under the tuition of Grosseteste and inspired by the writings of Arab alchemists who had preserved and built upon Aristotle's portrait of induction, Bacon described a repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the need for independent verification. He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results - a cornerstone of the scientific method, and a continuation of the work of researchers like Al Battani.

Bacon and Grosseteste conducted investigations into optics, although much of it was similar to what was being done at the time by Arab scholars. Bacon did make a major contribution to the development of science in medieval Europe by writing to the Pope to encourage the study of natural science in university courses and compiling several volumes recording the state of scientific knowledge in many fields at the time. He described the possible construction of a telescope, but there is no strong evidence of his having made one.

Late Middle Ages (AD 1300-1500)

The first half of the 14th century saw the scientific work of great thinkers. The logic studies by William of Occam led him to postulate a specific formulation of the principle of parsimony, known today as Occam's Razor. This principle is one of the main heuristics used by modern science to select between two or more underdetermined theories.

As Western scholars became more aware (and more accepting) of controversial scientific treatises of the Byzantine and Islamic Empires these readings sparked new insights and speculation. The works of the early Byzantine scholar John Philoponus inspired Western scholars such as Jean Buridan to question the received wisdom of Aristotle's mechanics. Buridan developed the theory of impetus which was a step towards the modern concept of inertia. Buridan anticipated Isaac Newton when he wrote:

Galileo's demonstration of the law of the space traversed in case of uniformly varied motion. It's the same demonstration that Oresme had made centuries earlier.

...after leaving the arm of the thrower, the projectile would be moved by an impetus given to it by the thrower and would continue to be moved as long as the impetus remained stronger than the resistance, and would be of infinite duration were it not diminished and corrupted by a contrary force resisting it or by something inclining it to a contrary motion

Thomas Bradwardine and his partners, the Oxford Calculators of Merton College, Oxford, distinguished kinematics from dynamics, emphasizing kinematics, and investigating instantaneous velocity. They formulated the mean speed theorem: a body moving with constant velocity travels distance and time equal to an accelerated body whose velocity is half the final speed of the accelerated body. They also demonstrated this theorem—essence of "The Law of Falling Bodies" -- long before Galileo is credited with this.

In his turn, Nicole Oresme showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of the earth were not valid and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heavens. Despite this argument in favor of the Earth's motion Oresme, fell back on the commonly held opinion that "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth."

The historian of science Ronald Numbers notes that the modern scientific assumption of methodological naturalism can be also traced back to the work of these medieval thinkers:

By the late Middle Ages the search for natural causes had come to typify the work of Christian natural philosophers. Although characteristically leaving the door open for the possibility of direct divine intervention, they frequently expressed contempt for soft-minded contemporaries who invoked miracles rather than searching for natural explanations. The University of Paris cleric Jean Buridan (a. 1295-ca. 1358), described as "perhaps the most brilliant arts master of the Middle Ages," contrasted the philosopher’s search for "appropriate natural causes" with the common folk’s erroneous habit of attributing unusual astronomical phenomena to the supernatural. In the fourteenth century the natural philosopher Nicole Oresme (ca. 1320-82), who went on to become a Roman Catholic bishop, admonished that, in discussing various marvels of nature, "there is no reason to take recourse to the heavens, the last refuge of the weak, or demons, or to our glorious God as if He would produce these effects directly, more so than those effects whose causes we believe are well known to us."

THE REASON WHY SCIENCE BLOOM IN THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD

The Renaissance is a transitional period,in the work of the Renaissance all the great nations of Europe shared.The reason why they discovered lots of invention.. These is the time when in the foreground there came out the humanist striving for knowledge, the interest towards the surroundings and most of all a time of the awakened human personality, of the new versatile man. A time when many new sciences were born – ethnography, history, geography, when the freedom of thinking, of personal choice occurred, when the zeal for beauty, self-knowledge and ambition appeared. Meaning to say the people during the Renaissance period are very much curious and more interested to explore their knowledge in order to build a much better invention than before..

SCIENCE DURING RENAISSANCE

Establishment of Academics

• The Academia Dei Lencei in Rome ( 1603-1630 )
• The Academia Del Cimiento in Florence ( 1657-1667 )
• The Royal society in London (1662 )
• The Academic Des Science in Paris ( 1662 )

Books and Journal

• Journal Des Savants of Paris ( 1665 )
• Acta Ervditorium of Leipzig (1682 )

Great Treatises

• Principia mathematica of Sir Isaac Newton ( 1687 )
• Traite De La Lumiereo of Christian huygens ( 1690 )

Remarkable Scientist

• Johann Gutenberg ( 1450 ) - the invention of printing press.
• German Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1402-64 ) - the latin exponent of the value of experiment.
• Nicholas Copernicus ( 1403 ) - developed the heliocentric theory using scientific method.
• Leonardo Da Vinci ( 1452-1514 ) -considered as the great artist of his time.
• Andres Versalius ( 1514-1564 ) - founder of modern human technology.

THE NEW STATUS OF GREEK SCIENCE

Medieval thought on the material world was essentially based on Greeks, specially Plato and Aristotle.

• Simon Stevinous - introduced the decimal fraction.
• Galileo Galilei - made the telescope ( 1564- 1642 )
• Johannes Kepler - theorized about the movement of the planet ( 1591-1630 )
• Rene Descartes - inventor of the graph who believed in the God Existence.
• Paracelsus - alchemist and physician of the renaissance.
• Francis Bacon - improved scientific method.
• Sir Isaac Newton - discovered the gravity.

EUROPEAN SCIENCE

Owes its past success and its special characteristic, its sharing, in the metaphysics and method.
The basic features european society were aggressive individualism tempered by principle of cooperation for a common good.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

An industrial revolution began that transform Europe from Agrarian to an Urban society towards the end of the 18th century.

CHINESE SCIENCE

BRIEF HISTORY

There has been more or less continuous contact between Europe and China since classical Greek times in spite of the distances between them and their totally different language.

Usually the connection was indirect and restricted to trade in luxury goods.

But even in the classical times there were curious synchronism in philosophical movements in Europe and China

Silk road- an ancient trade routine linking China with Rome.

Important Persons

• Marco Polo- whose account of his travels and experiences offered European a firsthand view of Asian lands and Stimulated interests in Asian trade.
• Zu Chongzhi- mathematician who calculated "pi" to the 7th digit.
• Liu Ju-hsieh- mathematician who discovered "Pascal's Triangle"
• Tao Ch'ien- famous poet and philosopher who influenced the ideaof "elixir of life".

Great Inventions

1. magnetic compass
2. printing press
3. gun powder
4. paper making

Astronomy - first planetarium which was made by an emperor.

Stellar explosion that took place in the "Crab Nebula" in 1054.

Mathematics - Asian abacus, "pi" was calculated to the seventh digit, decimal system, Pascal's
Triangle

Military - Crossbows, poison gases, Bamboo-made cannons, Rockets

Medicine - "Elixir of life" potion, acupuncture, autopsy

INDIAN SCIENCE ( my report )

Indian science

The Indian Civilization is about the oldest still alive, and it achieved the high level of technology at an early stage.

The history of science and technology in India begins with the prehistoric human activity in Mehrgarh or Pakistan and continues through the Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Bronze Age Civilization to the early state and empires.

The Science And Technology in India has something to do with the following field:

Agriculture

Indian Astrology

Zinc Metallurgy

Mathematics

AGRICULTURE

The Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 B.C. The size and prosperity of Indus Civilization grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers.

INDIAN ASTROLOGY

Indian Astronomical text named Vedanga Jyotisa dates back around 1200 B.C. It detailed several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.

In India there is a long established widespread beliefs in Astrology and it is commonly used for daily life.

Examples: With regards to marriage

With regards to career

With regards to election process

ZINC METALLURGY (refining metals)

• Zinc mines of Zawar were active during 400 B. C.
• Another important Indian contribution was in the Isolation, Distillation and use of Zinc. A major breakthrough in the history of metallurgy was India’s discovery of Zinc Distillation whereby the metal was vaporized and then condensed back into pure metal.
• Early Iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 B. C. Some scholars believed that by the early 13^th century B.C. iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India.
• Rust free steel was an Indian inventions and remained an Indian skill for centuries.

MATHEMATICS

• The use of Negative numbers was known in early India and their role insituation like mathematical problems of debt was understood.
• The Decimal number system originated in India. Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system which was compiled in India where it attained coherence and completion.

List of Indian Inventions and Discoveries

1. ATOMISM

The earliest reference to the concept of atoms date back to India in the 6^th century B.C.

According to Democritus:

The term “atomos” meaning uncuttable or the smallest indivisible particle of matter.

Dharmakirti and Dignaga

Indian philosophers and founder of Vaishehika School of atomism.

They considered atom to be:

1. point sized

2. dirationless

3. made of energy

2. CHANDRASEKHAR LIMIT AND NUMBERS

Discovered by the named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who received the novel prize in Physics for his work on stellar structure and stellar evolution.

3. UNIVERSE

The earliest known philosophical models of the universe are found in VEDAS, the earliest text on Indian philosophy dating back to the late 2^nd millennium B.C. They described COSMOLOGY in which the universe goes through repeated cycle of creation, destruction and rebirth.

4. INDIGO

Indigo was used as a dye in India, which was also a major center for its production and processing.

5. FIREARMS

By the 16^th century Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms: large guns in particular.

The Indian war rockets were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe.

In general, we can conclude that the science and technology in India has a greater part in terms of achieving high levels of technology in different kinds of field like in agriculture, in mathematics, in astrology and even in chemical elements that were still alive in our generation today.

ISLAMIC SCIENCE

Islamic culture is the most relevant to European Science

GREEK-----ARABIC-----LATIN-----HEBREW

The Arabic culture and language spread afar: to Portugal in the west and to the frontiers of China in the East and over many degrees of latitude.

The most characteristic Arabic Scientific developments were in:

ALCHEMY

• Medieval chemical art whose principles objectives where to find the panacea and to transmute base metals into gold.

RHAZES

• Makes the earliest known suggestions for furnishing a chemical laboratory.
  

MATH

• Arabic numerals - an Indian system of numerical notation during the 19th century. It was invented in India passed through Persian to the Arabs, and was introduced in the Europe in the 10th century.
• Persian Mohammed IBN Alkhwarismi is the Persian Mohammed where from. He developed the process of vectification.

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY

• Constant preoccupation in the Islamic world. It was developed in Spain.
• Cordova- located in Southern Spain.
• Toledo- located in Central Spain.
• Toledan- tables of proposition were drawn up in 1080

The Ptolemic was replaced by this concentric system.

THE URBAN REBOLUTION ( 3000 - 5000 )

• A very important cultural transition began
• Generated new needs and resources and accompanied by a signficant increase in a technological innovation.
• the beggining of the invention of the city

CATEGORIES IN THE URBAN REVOLUTION

1. Craftsmen and Scientist - led to the search for other metallic ores, to the development and encouragement of trade in order to secure specific metals.
- rise of the first civilization

SUMMERIAN ASTRONOMERS

• Plotted the motion of heavenly bodies.
• Based calculations about calendar
• Relationship between science and technology have emerged.

2. Copper and Bronze

Goldsmiths - the technique of heating the metal incredible over a strong fire and casting it into simple clay or stone.

Bronze - is the important material of early civilization.

3. Sea Transportation - progress from sailing ship to vessels
Irrigation - developed of systemic irrigation.

STONE AGE TEECHNOLOGY

EARLIEST COMMUNITIES

• Lived almost entirely in the small nomadic communities.
• surviving on his skills in hunting and fishing.
• developed in tropical latitudes, especially in Africa.
• moved out hence into the subtropical regions and eventually into the landmass of Eurasia.

NEOLITIC REVOLUTION

• Increased in population
  
• Bigger communities
• Begginings of town life
• sometimes called as Neolithic Revolution

Primitive man used: wood, bone, fur, leaves, grasses

Stone

• material that gives its name and technology unity.
• became tools only when they were shaped delibarately for specific purposes and for this to be done efficiently.

Flint

• Became a very popular stone for this purpose, although fine sandstones and certain volcanic rocks were also widely used.

TOOLS AND WEAPONS

• stone headed spear
• the harpoon
• bow and arrow

OTHER DEVICES INVENTED

• Potter's Wheel, driven by kilks from the operator
• Wheels, gave continuous rotary movement in one direction
• Drill and the Lathe, derived from the bow and had the effect of spinning the drill piece.

FOOD PRODUCTION

• Paleolithic, gathering fishing and hunting
• Neolithic, agriculture, animal husbandry

BUILDING TECHNIQUES

• Impressive structure were created
• primarily tombs
• burial mounds and religious edifices
• sun-dried bricks for domestic housing

MANUFACTURING

• Grinding corn ( Quern ) - transport and communication
• Baking Clay ( Pottery)
• Spinning and weaving textiles
• Dyeing, fermenting and distilling
• gold, silver, copper, tin
• domestication of animals
• dugout canoe and brick-bark canoe

SCIENCE IN GREEK AND ROMAN CIVILIZATION

A. Greek Civilization

• emerged around 1100 B.C. Early Greeks have fully developed basic elements of mathematics, astronomy, physics, geography and medicine.

B. Person who give contribution on the development of science

• Thales - matter was composed of /or convertible into water.
• Hippocrates - father of medicine.
• Aristotle - classification of plants and animals.
• Archimedes - principle of lever and pulley
• Ptolemy - geocentric theory

C. Roman Civilization

• Time of Julius Caesar (102-44 B.C. ) - it is said that Romans are poor in science. But contributed a lot in the field of infrastructure.

D. Romans that give contributions in the field of science.

• Pliny the elder - only roman scientist that is celebrated.
• Galen - Wrote 150 of books on medicine.
• Cleopatra - Roman Queen who used cosmetics.
  

ASTRONOMY

Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects, as well as the formation and development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Prehistoric cultures left behind astronomical artifacts such as the Egyptian monuments and Stonehenge, and early civilizations such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, and Indians performed methodical observations of the night sky. However, the invention of the telescope was required before astronomy was able to develop into a modern science. Historically, astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.

During the 20th century, astronomy split into two major categories:

physics technology
A B

A. OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY

• Focused in acquiring data from observation which analized by the aids of basic principles of physics.

B. THEORETICAL ASTRONOMY

• Oriented towards the development computer or analytical models to described astronomical object and phenomena.

Some Contributions of Early Civilization

1. Babylonians

• Beggining of mathematical and scientific astronomy. They discovered the lunar eclipse recorded in repeating cycle known as a "caros".

2. Greeks (3rd B.C.)

• Aritarcus- calculated the mass of the earth and measures the distance and the size of the moon and star. He is also the first to proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system.
• Hipparchus- invented the first and the earliest known astronomical device such as the astrolabe.
  

Astrolabe

-Antiktheria mechanism (150 - 80 B.C.)- was an early analog computer designed to calculate of sun, moon, etc.

3. Persian

• Azophi- discovered the andromeda galaxy and described in his "book of fixed stars".

4. Egyptians

• ALI IBN RIDWAN- first observed the SN (supernova 1006). The brightest apparent magnitude stellar event recorded in the history.
  

AXIOM AND THEOREM

AXIOM or postulate is a proposition that is not proved or demonstrated but considered to be either self-evident, or subject to necessary decision. Therefore, its truth is taken for granted, and serves as a starting point for deducing and inferring other (theory dependent) truths.WHILE a THEOREM is a statement which has been proven on the basis of previously established statements, such as other theorems, and previously accepted statements, such as axioms.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The early Greeks developed the LOGICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD whereby conclusion (new knowledge) follow from premises (old knowledge).

Euclid established common notions very basic self-evident assertions:
Things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another.

If equals be added to equals, the wholes are equal.

If equals be subracted from equal, the remainers are equal.

Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another.

AXIOMATIC SYSTEM- is any set of axioms from which some or all axioms can be used in conjunction to logically derive theorems.

CHARACTERISTIC OF AXIOMATIC SYSTEM
1. Independent
2. Complete
3. Consistent

THEOREM
Many theorems are of the form of an indicative conditional.

If A, then B, In this case A is called the hypothesis (antecedent) of the theorem and B the conclusion (consequent).

DEFINITION

A Definition may be a statement of the essential properties of a certain thing, or a statement of equivalence between one expression and another, usually more complex expression that gives meaning of the first.

A thing being is called (from Latin) a DEFINIENDUM the expression which defines it is called a DEFINIENS.

Lexical Definition

• a "dictionary Definition" reports the meaning of the word as it normally used.

Intensional Definition

• of the general term, on the other hand,is the sets of features which are shared by everything to which it applies.

Extensional Definition

• of a general term is just the collection of individual thing to which it correctly applied.

Contextual Definition

• some words cannot be clearly define on their own, but it is posible to offer schema for defining every sentence which they occur.

Stipulative Definition

• is the specification of meaning adopted or assumed specifically for the purposes for argument or discussion in a given context.

Ostensive Definition

• gives the meaning of a term by pointing out he thing denoted by, it, or pointing out of examples of the kind of thing meant by it.

Precising Definition

• is the definition that extends the dictionary definition of a term for specific purpose by including additional criteria that narrow down the set of thing meant by it.

Operational Definition

• of quantity is a specific process whereby it is measured.

CLASSIFICATION

• Distinction, identification and organization of two or more items, information and facts according to their similarities which are determined through comparison.

• Gives a closer view on the link between the object being compared.

Definition Of Classification According to Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz;

It is a differential of two or more objects and that these two objects are not "EVER EXACTLY ALIVE". In fact, no two things are "EVER EXACTLY ALIKE". That if ever there were two objects which were so alike, they would be some object. There is always an essential dissimilarity even in a pair of apparently identical objects.

PLATO'S THEORY OF UNIVERSALS
1. Universalia In RE (universal in the things)
- Everything is a combination of form and matter.
2. Universalia Ante Rem (universal before the things)
- The link between member of the class is that they are all imitations of an archetype which existed the world was made.
3. Universalia Past Rem ( universal after the things)
- nothing general exist particular things

FOUR DIFFERENT TYPES OF SIMILARITY

1. Genetic similarity- having similar origins
2. Structural similarity- having the same constituent parts.
3. Functional similarity- having similar behavior.
4. Apparent similarity- having similar external features.

LANGUAGE

LANGUAGE
Is an abstract system of word meaning and all aspect of culture. It includes speech, written character, numerals, symbol, gestures and expression of non-verbal communication.

Object
- the thing which the sign stands for.
Sign
- it represents what the object is.
Interpreter
- the person who does the sign in which the sign stands for.

TERMS
In percepts "sense meaning". According to C.I. Lewis: terms in simple way is study of its use and effect of the circumstances in which people employ it or react more or less consistently.

All terms have perceptual meaning. But there are some terms do not have meaning that fall into two classes:
* grammatical term
* abstract term

All language begin on ordinary language under the process of immediate necessity of communication but not in all cases like.
* customary usage as how it is spread
* grammatical term
* declision case spread fall down

ORDINARY LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
Is the argument that any language which is adequate stands as the transmitter of nuances or differences and shades of meaning on which everyday conversation must be fluid.

THOUGHT

THOUGHT
- Act of thinking
- Which one think
- Opinions and reflection

CONCEPTS
- Are really habits of expectation
- Serves as a representations of an object
- It is idea or mental image

PERCEPTS
- View
- Reflections
- Impression

TITCHENER
- Used to report what comes into his head when he was using certain idea.
- Image theory

HUME
- Used by introspecting to discovered what the self look like.
- Bundless of perception

RYLE
- Used to asked questions about the concept.

HERACLITUS
- He recognized in perception are more or less arbitrarily carved but of the continues stuff.

PERCEPTION

PERCEPTION
- Is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information.
- Means receiving, collecting actions of taking possession with the mind or senses.

"WHAT ONE PERCEIVES IS A RESULT OF INTERPLAYS BETWEEN PAST EXPERIENCES, INCLUDING ONE'S CULTURE AND THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PERCEIVED"

FOUR KEYWORDS
Perception - Experience - Knowledge - Science

EDMUND HUSSERL
- Bracketing : This means forgetting for the time being all that one has learned in order to take an unprejudiced look at what is represented.

KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE
- Is difined expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education.
- Acquisition involves complex cognitive processes.
- Confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use for specific purposes.

THE FOUR MATTER OF FACTS
That something exist.
That something can be known.
That there is something which matter.
That something including the foregoing statements.

FOUR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
Ontology or theory of being
Epistemology or theory of knowledge
Axiology or the theory of value
Logic or the theory of influence.

OTHER SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
- Custom and tradition
- Sense perception
- Intuition

PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS

Philosophical Analysis is the general term for the process used by the philosophers in an analytic tradition that involve breaking down philosophical issues.

ANALYSIS
From the greek word "analusis" means to breakdown; is the process of breaking down topic or substance to gain a better understanding.

THREE MAIN WAYS OF FORMING ANALYSIS
1. EXPLICATION - which was so called by Carnap who worked largely in the construction of symbolic language.

2. REDEFINITION - it is associated with Moore by replacing term or statement to be analyze by other term and statement which have the same meaning with the same sort of language but which more carefully formulated and more clearly understand.

3. ILLUSTRATION - which takes the opposite point of view holding who practiced by Wittgenstein by just keeping close to multiplying use of one term to another.

TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES OF PHILOSOPHY

1.Theoretical Philosophy- direct itself to knowing things as they are without thinking of application. Its ultimate aim is knowledge of truth.

a. METAPHYSICS: It is concerned with explaining the fundamental nature of being and the world.

b. ONTOLOGY: Is the philosophical study of the nature of being, existence or reality in general, as well as the basic categories of being and their relations.

c. COSMOLOGY: Refers to the study of the Universe in its totality as it now is (or at least as it can be observed now), and by extension, humanity's place in it.

d. THEODICY: Comes from Greek theos ‘god’ + dike ‘justice’.

e. PSYCHOLOGY: Is the scientific study of human or other animal mental functions and behaviors.

f. EPISTEMOLOGY: Is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge.

It addresses the questions:

* What is knowledge?
* How is knowledge acquired?
* What do people know?
* How do we know what we know?


2.Practical Philosophy- directs its concern to things which are material or perceptible and useful. Its goal is not just finding the truth but acting on it.

a. SEMANTICS: Is the study of meaning, usually in language.

b. LOGIC: Is the study of reasoning.

c. ETHICS: Is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good vs. bad, noble vs. ignoble, right vs. wrong, and matters of justice, love, peace, and virtue.

d. AXIOLOGY: Is the philosophical study of value.

e. AESTHETICS: Is a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and appreciation of beauty.

FUNCTION OF PHILOSOPHY

1. To carefully examine and criticize the premisses and conclusion of all sciences such as biology, physics, sociology, anatomy and others. and to compare this assumptions and conclusion of different sciences when the result appears to be contradictory.

2. To synthesize findings.

3. To harmonize and bring this and other sciences together to complement and/or support one another.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

The Philosophy of Science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implication of science.

Science is a body of empirical,theoretical and practical knowledge about the natural world.

According to Aristotle:

Philosophy is a thinking which aim a maximum connected to the truth about all available experience.

According to Brittle:

Philosophy is a science of being in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by the aid of numerous reasons alone.


"The Ultimate Goal Of The Philosophy Is To Seek For The TRUTH"

VIEWS OF PHILOSOPHY WHICH IS SUPPLEMENTARY BY SMITH AND TILER
1. It is a personal attitude towards life and the universe.
2. A philosophy is a method of reflective thinking and reason inquiring.
3. Philosophy is attempt to gain a view of the whole.
4. Philosophy is a logical analysis of the language and clarification of the meaning of the words and concepts.
5. Philosophy is a group of problems as well as theories and the solutions of this problems.

NATURE
Science describe the object of the study part by part while Philosophy attemt yo do it as a whole or comprehensively.

SCOPE
Science tends to eliminate the personal factors and to ignore values and its drive for objectively while Philosophy interested in personality, values and or real of human experiences.

APPROACH
Science aim to absorb nature and control process while Philosophy it criticize, evaluate and integrate values dimensin of life.

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. In addition to these central problems for science as a whole, many philosophers of science consider these problems as they apply to particular sciences (e.g. philosophy of biology or philosophy of physics). Some philosophers of science also use contemporary results in science to draw philosophical morals.

Although most practitioners are philosophers, several prominent scientists have contributed to the field and still do. Other prominent scientists have felt that the practical effect on their work is limited: “Philosophy of science is about as useful to scientists as ornithology is to birds,” according to physicist Richard Feynman.

Philosophy of science focuses on metaphysical, epistemic and semantic aspects of science. Ethical issues such as bioethics and scientific misconduct are usually considered ethics or science studies rather than philosophy of science.